Remembering the Forgotten Mizrahi Heritage Month and an interview with Mizrahi UCSB student Zoe Ziv.

Mizrahi Heritage Month remembers over 850,000 Mizrahi and Sephardic Jewish refugees who were expelled from their homes in the Middle East, in countries including Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Libya, Morocco, Yemen, Tunisia, and several more during the mid 20th century. 70,000 additional refugees from Iran following the Iranian Revolution during 1979 to 1980 are remembered this month as well.  

The Jewish Exodus from Arab Lands is a widely unknown piece of Jewish history. Mizrahi Jews from Middle Eastern countries fled persecution, oppression, and death, as their home countries enacted discriminatory laws, failed to prevent violent attacks against Jews, and encouraged antisemitism. As a result, entire communities that had lived in the region for a millennia were uprooted, forced into exile, and left without justice or acknowledgment of their suffering. Today, many of their stories remain unheard, their rich cultural heritage ignored, and their contributions to the societies they were forced to leave have been forgotten by most of the world.

When the Babylonian Empire conquered the Kingdom of Judah and destroyed the First Temple in 586 BCE, many Jews were either killed or taken captive into Babylon, and the Jewish population was dramatically displaced. Few remained in Judah. The Persian defeat of the Babylonian Empire led by King Cyrus in 539 BCE permitted Jews to return to Judah and rebuild the temple. This marked the end of Babylonian Exile. Some returned, though because so much time had passed since their exile, many Jews remained in Babylon and the surrounding land. 

The expulsion of the remaining Jews from Judea and destruction of the Second Temple in 136 CE by Roman occupying forces marked the beginning of a 2,000 year long exile of Jews from their ancestral homeland. A large Jewish diaspora developed, and communities formed in Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. Jews who settled in the Middle East and North Africa became known as Mizrahim, meaning ‘Easterners.’

In 610 CE, a new religion emerged from the Arabian Peninsula, Islam. Arab Muslim armies soon conquered much of the Middle East. The Arab conquests transformed the region, and over time, populations of these areas like Syria, Iraq, Egypt, North Africa, and the Levant, came to be identified as Arabs. As a result of the Arab conquests, Mizrahi Jews were classified as Dhimmi, a status given to non-Muslims that designated them as ‘tolerated’ minority subjects under Islamic rule. While the Dhimmi system was meant to provide Jews and Christians protection, it also reinforced their inferior position in society. Jews were required to submit to various restrictions under this system. To name a few, Jews could not build synagogues taller than mosques, ride horses (which would place them physically higher than Muslims), or live in houses taller than those of Muslims. Jews were also required to wear a yellow patch on their clothing. Many wrongly believe that this practice of ‘identification’ was introduced by the Nazis, but it began over a thousand years before the Holocaust. Jews and other religious minorities were also required to pay a tax known as the jizya for protection. Though the treatment of Dhimmis varied across different Islamic regions (some areas offering better or worse conditions) the system as a whole reinforced Jewish subjugation, shaping attitudes toward them as an inferior group.

The Dhimmi system lasted in various forms across different Islamic empires and regions from the 7th century until the early 20th century. While this system was oppressive, Sephardic Jews often fled to countries where it was enforced, seeking refuge from harsher conditions they faced in places like Spain, where the Inquisition and forced conversions posed severe threats to their lives. In doing so, they joined their Mizrahi counterparts in the Middle East and North Africa. After the fall of the Ottoman Empire, countries like Turkey, Iran, Egypt, and Iraq were some of the last to maintain the Dhimmi system. Factors like European influence and internal reforms within Islamic countries have been attributed to this end. While the Dhimmi system is no longer implemented today, the majority of Middle-Eastern countries still have oppressive laws or practices that discriminate against Jews and other minorities, with the extent of discrimination varying across the region.

In the 1930s, as Arab nationalism gained momentum across the Middle East. This was largely a response to colonial forces, but Jews became scapegoats for widespread social and political unrest. Arab leaders often targeted Jewish communities with state-sanctioned repression in order to rally public support. This period had a rise in intimidation, harassment, beatings, persecution, and murder against Jews. Nazi-controlled Radio Berlin had an Arabic language bureau, which was devoted to spreading antisemitic propaganda to the Arab world. A key figure in this movement was Haj Amin al-Husayni, the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, who famously met with Adolf Hitler and discussed plans for the annihilation of Jews across the region. The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem was also responsible for spreading the rumor that the Jews were planning to destroy Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem, a fear-mongering tactic that continues to be echoed to this day. Al-Husayni proposed the creation of concentration camps in the Middle East and incited violence, declaring, “Arabs, rise as one man and fight for your sacred rights. Kill the Jews wherever you find them.” His words fueled antisemitic sentiment across the Middle East and contributed to a pattern of violent persecution that targeted Mizrahi Jewish communities.

Iraq's government also fostered antisemitic sentiment during this time, which led to the Farhud Massacre of 1941. Mobs massacred women, children, and the elderly in the Jewish ghettos of Baghdad during the Jewish holiday of Shavuot. They looted homes, brutally attacked families, carrying out horrific acts of violence. These mobs who chanted “kill the Jews” carried out these atrocities with impunity, which caused profound fear among Mizrahi Jewish populations. Many Jews were betrayed by neighbors and police, some participating in the violence. 

The Farhud, Baghdad, Iraq, 1941. (ANU Museum of the Jewish People)

There were some Arabs who helped the Jews by diverting the mobs, claiming there were no Jews nearby or hiding them in their own homes. The Farhud left around 180 Jews dead, hundreds injured, and thousands displaced. This event is viewed as the turning point in Iraq for Mizrahi Jews, who feared for their lives and sought emigration out of the country. This violent wave spread across the Middle East, including Libya, Egypt, Syria, and other countries, where riots led to the torture and massacre of Jewish communities.

A similar attack in Tripoli, Libya occurred in 1945, leaving around 140 Mizrahi Jews dead. Yitshak Dvas, a survivor of the 1945 Libyan riots recounted the traumatic event in The Forgotten Refugees (2005), when his life forever changed: “I ran and they were chasing me until they caught me. They beat me up until they got tired of it. They wanted to cut my arms and legs and my head too, with axes. Then they got tired. They thought I was dead.” (Translated from Hebrew). Sixty years later, Yitshak’s body unmistakably tells his story, his hands gruesomely scarred, and his wrists bearing deep lines where the axe cut into him.   

Nissim Barda, another survivor of the 1945 Libyan riots, recounted in the film, “I went into the room… I found children, a pile, six, seven, eight little children, babies… all the house was one pile - burnt. The smell of a burnt human being is terrible” (Translated from Hebrew). Violent demonstrations and widespread attacks on Jews and Jewish businesses continued in almost every single Middle Eastern country during this period. In some Middle-Eastern countries, there were authorities or governments who tried to help Jews during these terrifying times, like Morocco, where King Mohammed V resisted Nazi pressures to hand over Jews during World War II, famously declaring, “There are no Jews in Morocco, only Moroccan citizens.” The Jewish population in Morocco today reflects that of its better stance against antisemitism during these times, though many still chose to leave due to increasing hostilities including threats, violence, and rising antisemitic rhetoric. In Oujda, Morocco, 47 Jews were killed during the Oujda Massacre, along with many injuries and the looting and destruction of Jewish homes and businesses. Actions like these across the Middle East contributed to a climate of fear which led to the mass exodus of Jews from Arab countries. 

After the establishment of Israel in 1948, many Arab countries directed their anger on their own Jewish citizens. In many cases, governments failed to protect Jewish communities or actively worsened their oppression. In Egypt, the government initiated a wave of repression against Jews, including the arrest of Jewish businessmen, the confiscation of property, and forced expulsions. In Syria, Jews were subjected to harsh restrictions and surveillance, and many were driven from their homes following violent riots, with the government offering little to no protection. In Yemen, Jews were subject to violent persecutions, forced conversions, and restrictions on their movements, which culminated in the 1949-1950 Operation Magic Carpet, which resulted in the mass evacuation of over 40,000 Yemenite Jews to Israel. These events and many others like them culminated in the largest Jewish migration out of Arab lands, where those who were expelled or forced to flee became refugees. 

Yemenite Jews at a refugee camp, Ein Shemmer, Israel 1950. (Hanns Pinn, GPO National Photo Collection)

Following the Six Day war in 1967, Mizrahi Jews in Arab countries faced more severe persecution and discrimination, often enacted by leadership. The Egyptian government forcibly gathered over 400 male Mizrahi Jews, who were beaten, tortured, and humiliated - many of whom were never heard from again - while also expelling many of the remaining Jews and confiscating their businesses and properties. In Iraq, Saddam Hussein arranged the public hanging of nine Jews in the  middle of Baghdad, an event which was attended by half a million people. This event was shown on television all over the world. The seizure of Jewish property and assets across Arab countries following their expulsions is estimated to be valued at $6.7 billion - reflecting the scope of their displacement.

The Jewish community in Iran is one of the oldest in the Diaspora. Before the Islamic Revolution, Iran was an important ally to Israel, and even aided in the safe passage of Jewish refugees during the Exodus from Arab lands. Even today, Iran is estimated to have under 10,000 Jewish citizens, the second highest number in the Middle East. However these numbers were much higher before the Revolution, where persecution, discrimination, and anti-Israel rhetoric created a hostile environment for Jewish people. The 1998 execution of a Jewish businessman, Ruhollah Kakhodah-Zadeh sparked fear for many Iranian Jews, and the imposition of Sharia Law made many Jews in Iran decide to head to safer lands. The majority of Iranian Jews left for Israel, the United States, and Europe. 

As of today, very few Mizrahi Jews remain in Arab countries. However, Mizrahi culture has had a profound impact in Israel, where Mizrahim make up around half of its Jewish population. Mizrahi influence is clearly reflected in Israel’s food, music, and society. Israeli dishes like sabich, hummus, falafel, and shakshuka are rooted in Mizrahi and Middle Eastern cuisine. Mizrahi music blends Arabic melodies and Hebrew lyrics, and is today a dominant force in Israeli pop music, with artists like Itay Levi and Omer Adam shaping the modern musical landscape. 

Yemenite Israeli band A-WA (Album cover of “Bayti Fi Rasi,” 2019)

Remembering Mizrahi Heritage and history is crucially important, especially in today's divided world. Mizrahi Jews have contributed so much to today’s society, and their persistent survival throughout thousands of years of oppression and persecution is inspirational. With a rich cultural heritage that they refuse to leave behind, Mizrahim remind us the importance of cultural diversity and acceptance. Speaking about their stories and learning about their eventful history will prevent the Mizrahi refugees and culture from being forgotten.

“That we are free, safe from persecution, and in charge of ourselves - these things are new. But that we are here in the Middle East? There is nothing new about that at all.” - Matti Friedman

Interview with Zoe Ziv

Zoe Ziv is a 4th year Psychology and Brain Sciences major and a fellow Mizrahi student at UCSB. I would like to thank her very much for her time to take this interview and for reaching out to her grandparents to share her family’s story.

What country or region does your family come from, and have you been able to visit that country?

Both of my grandparents are from Meknes in Morocco, and I’ve been to Morocco once. I used to live in Spain and it was a very short flight from there. It was really fun, I got to meet a lot of family members who stayed in Morocco.

How was your family affected by the Jewish Exodus from Arab lands?

Both of my grandparents moved around the same time period in the 60’s, thankfully in Morocco the situation was a bit better for Jewish people, the kings of Morocco recognized the productivity that the Jews brought to the country and they weren’t like ‘everybody get out.’ But there was a lot of social discrimination and uncertainty in not knowing if there would be an exodus. The uncertainty and need to feel safe is what made them leave Morocco and move to Israel.

What role do you think the younger generation of Mizrahi Jews can play in ensuring that Mizrahi culture and history are not forgotten?

I think things like the magazine you guys are doing and bringing awareness to that part of history is important. Also bringing friends to Chabad so they can see the diversity, I love coming to Chabad and seeing people who aren’t Jewish. A lot of media now is saying ‘go back to Europe’ when a lot of our families didn’t come from Europe. Especially in times like these where there’s conflict and a lot of Israel hate, Mizrahi Jews can sometimes be left out of the big equation of things and we’re kind of erased in that sense because we don’t fit what the anti-Israel people want us to be. We’re not white and we’re not colonists, we were ourselves kicked out of these countries. 

What role do you think the younger generation as a whole can play in ensuring that Mizrahi culture and history are not forgotten?

It’s important that Jewish people feel safe sharing their Judaism and history with their friends. Especially now it seems like people aren’t as open to hearing about Jewish history, but I think others can make space to hear others stories. It doesn’t always have to be a political debate, people could be more open to just hearing everybody’s truth. I’ve also noticed when watching TV shows or movies and there’s a Jewish character, they’re almost always Ashkenazi. Like in New Girl, there’s Schmidt whose Yiddish and these characters usually mention gefilte fish or other traditionally Ashkenazi things. I think it’s great and I’m glad there is some representation, but I can’t think of one Mizrahi Jewish character in a movie or TV show, and we need more Mizrahi representation. Also, other groups like Ethiopian Jews or Indian Jews - there are so many different communities within Judaism that make up a large portion of the population and aren’t represented.

In the past year, there has been a great increase in discussions about Jewish heritage and ancestry. Do you feel like Mizrahi Jews have been accurately portrayed in these discussions?

I feel like we are sometimes cut out of the discussion because we don’t fit that white colonist narrative. My mom isn’t white, but people like her aren’t truly seen because they don’t fit that description.

Do you feel that Mizrahi Jewish voices are being heard today in these discussions?

Not really. I’ve seen a few posts online here and there by Mizrahi people, I know that I’m getting posts like those because of the algorithm. But I wish there was more.

Do you feel that Mizrahi Jews face any unique challenges today in terms of identity or visibility? If so, how can these challenges be addressed?

It's similar to how when gay people in Israel speak out they get told they’re pinkwashing, and using their identity to prove a point. I think that same thing is done to Mizrahi Jews and Muslims living in Israel. I have Muslim friends in Israel, my grandpa works with a lot of Muslim people, when we speak out we get told that we’re ‘just trying to prove a point.’ We should be heard. It also feels like Jews don’t have a place in activism anymore, which is sad because we’re one of the smallest minorities in the world. 

What role does food, music, or other cultural practices play in your connection to your Mizrahi heritage? 

Food is so important in Mizrahi culture. We would always go to my Moroccan grandparents house for events, dinners and shabbat. I think the culture of family is also important, it's very family-oriented in Morocco, there’s always a lot of hugs, crying, and emotion. Music too, the more Arabian-sounding music, I love that.

How would you like to see future generations of Mizrahi Jews connect to their heritage?

I think especially now, the most important thing is to be vocal and not let our identities get erased - we were very recently kicked out of all these countries. 

What kind of tough decisions were made by your grandparents when leaving Morocco? (ex. Leaving behind valuables, friends, culture, etc.) Is there anything they miss about Morocco?

Thankfully, both of my grandparents wanted to leave, and most of their families came with them so they didn’t face too many challenges. People just want to be with their culture. All of my grandparents' friends are Moroccan, Morocco is Israel now in his mind. Everyone he knows is from Morocco, he speaks French to many of them. When asking my grandpa if there’s anything he misses about Morocco, he said there’s nothing to miss, his culture is here [Israel].

How was the transition to Israel for your family? 

I think the transition was good, both of my grandparents were a little older when they moved, they were at the age where they were ready to find a job and work. Thankfully they moved with the rest of their family so there was support for them as well. On one side my grandma’s family owned a little store, so they were all able to work and help out there. On my grandpa’s side he was able to get his degree, the rest of his family supported him and he supported them. 

Lastly, do you have a favorite saying, story, or traditional dish that your grandparents passed down to you?

A story my grandfather told me: He was the youngest of eleven siblings, so he was sometimes overlooked. He grew up in Morocco and lived there until he was nineteen. The year following his high school graduation he worked to help his family, something he and his siblings did throughout their childhood. He helped a middle-aged man who owned a gym get his high school diploma, and in return the man let him work at his gym for free. My grandpa always shows me photos of him flexing from the days where he got to workout at this gym for free. He works out to this day and he’s probably more fit than I am, which is why I love this story. 

-Shani Levy-Richards

Sources:

Cohen, Mark R. The "Golden Age" of Jewish-Muslim Relations: Myth and Reality. Princeton University Press, 2005.

The Forgotten Exodus: Iran." AJC Podcast, American Jewish Committee, 13 Jan. 2020, Link.

The Forgotten Refugees. Directed by Lawrence Weschler, 2005. Link

Wagenhofer, Sophie. "Contested Narratives: Contemporary Debates on Mohammed V and the Moroccan Jews under the Vichy Regime." Quest. Issues in Contemporary Jewish History 4 (2012).

“Hajj Amin-Husayni Meets Hitler.” Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Link

International Religious Freedom Reports for 2023. U.S. Department of State. Link

King Jr, Martin Luther. "Israel - The Imaginary Jew in Collective." Antisemitism Explained (2011): 174.

Mor, Aharon, and Orly Rahimiyan. "The Jewish Exodus from Arab Lands: Toward Redressing Injustices on All Sides."